Individuals Contribute to Biotechnology

1. Anton van Leeuwenhoek - Discovered cells, Bacteria, Protists, Red blood
2. Gregor Johan Mendel - Discovered genetics
3. Walter Sutton - Discovered Chromosomes
4. Thomas Hunt Morgan - Discovered how genes are transmitted through chromosomes
5. Ernst Ruska - Invented the electron microscope
6. Sir Alexander Fleming - Discovered penicillin
7. Rosalind Elsie Franklin -Research led to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA
8. James Watson and Francis Crick - Discovered DNA
9. Mary-Claire King - Mapped human genes for research of cancer treatments
10. Ian Wilmut - Created the first true clone, the Dorset ewe Dolly
    
    
    
    

Basic Definition Part1

Agrobacterium tumefaciens
The bacterium which causes crown gall of dicot plants. It inserts its own Ti plasmid DNA into the host plant DNA. The inserted DNA produces growth hormones which result in the tumor and provides a habitat for the bacteria. This is an example of natural genetic engineering. The Ti plasmid can be used as a transformation vector.

amino acid
The molecular building blocks for proteins.

antisense DNA
DNA strand that is complementary (opposite) to the functional gene. Antisense DNA can block the function of the normal sense DNA. This method was used in the construction of the Flavr Savr tomato.

band
In gels and blots, bands are visible indications of a particular fragment of a certain size. There may be one to many bands per lane.

base pair
In DNA, there are four possible bases: cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and thymine (T). Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidine bases; adenine and guanine are purine bases. Cytosine is complementary to guanine while adenine is complementary to thymine. If one strand of DNA has the sequence ATTGC then the complementary strand will be TAACG. Two complementary bases constitute a base pair. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.

biotechnology
Broad sense: Technology for working with biological systems. Includes genetic engineering, human and veterinary medicine, crop and animal breeding, diagnostics, pharmaceuticals, forensics, etc. Narrow sense: Genetic engineering.

blot, northern
A pattern of RNA fragments transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane from a gel. The gel has undergone electrophoresis to separate fragments according to size. The RNA fragments are arranged in different lanes for each sample. Each lane contains bands which are fragments of different sizes. Radioactive probes are often used to visualized particular bands by autoradiography.

blot, southern
A pattern of DNA fragments transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane from a gel. The gel has undergone electrophoresis to separate fragments according to size. The DNA fragments are arranged in different lanes for each sample. Each lane contains bands which are fragments of different sizes. Radioactive probes are often used to visualized particular bands by autoradiography.

blot, western
A pattern of proteins transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane from a gel. The gel has undergone electrophoresis to separate fragments according to size. The proteins are arranged in different lanes for each sample. Each lane contains bands which are fragments of different sizes. Labeled antibody probes are often used to visualize particular bands.

Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis)
A soil bacterium that produces insecticidal proteins. There are several different kinds of proteins produced by different strains of Bt. Some are effective against larvae of moths and butterflies. Others are effective against larvae of beetles. The Bt protein has been introduced into various crops as a built-in insecticide.

chromosome
A linear structure in the nucleus of plants and animals that is visible in light microscopy when stained. The chromosome is a single, long, linear molecule of DNA and associated proteins. Bacteria have a single circular chromosome; other organisms may have many linear chromosomes.

clone
Def. 1. Noun: An exact duplicate of a fragment of DNA Def. 2. Noun: An exact duplicate of entire organism. Def. 3. Verb: to make a clone

cloning vector
A DNA molecule capable of autonomous replication within the cloning host cell (e.g E. coli). The vectors contain restriction enzyme sites for insertion of foreign DNA. Cloning vectors are derived from bacterial plasmids, bacteriophages, or viruses.

codon
Set of three nucleotides that specify a particular amino acid during protein synthesis.

DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that stores genetic information. Composed of two complementary strands. See base pairs.

cDNA
Complementary DNA to a particular RNA fragment.

rDNA
Def. 1. Ribosomal DNA; DNA which codes for ribosomesDef. 2. Recombinant DNA (see next item)

DNA, recombinant
DNA that has been cut and spliced back together in a new sequence. The DNA may be from one organism or from more than one organism

DNA, repetitive
Fragments of DNA that appear in multiple copies in a single individual.

E. coli (Escherichia coli)
A common intestinal bacterium that is widely used in genetic engineering as a host for a cloning vector. Some strains of E. coli are important foodborne pathogens. Lab strains are of the harmless variety.

electroporation
Transformation technique that uses electric fields to temporarily increase permeability of cells to foreign DNA.

event
An "event" in genetic engineering is the insertion of a particular piece of foreign DNA into the chromosome of the recipient. Insertion occurs in random locations, so each event is unique. The event can affect how a gene is expressed in the organism. Once an event occurs, the transgene can be passed to the next generation as a normally inherited gene.

fingerprint
A set of molecular markers sufficiently diverse to identify particular individuals with reasonable certainty.

gel, agarose
A substance used to separate DNA or RNA fragments by size. Used for southern and northern blots.

gel, polyacrylamide
A substance used to separate proteins by size. Used for western blots.

gene
The basic unit of inheritance. A segment of DNA that codes for a particular protein.

gene gun
Transformation technique that uses accelerated particles coated with DNA to introduce foreign DNA into recipient plant.

gene therapy
The introduction of new genes into individuals to cure diseases or genetic abnormalities.

genetic code
The genetic information in DNA is encoded with four different nucleotide bases: A, C, G, and T (see base pair). A set of three consecutive nucleotide bases constitutes a codon. A codon specifies a particular amino acid that is added during synthesis of a protein.

genetic engineering
The process of modifying organisms to obtain desired traits by incorporating recombinant DNA from native, alien, or synthetic sources. The term is usually reserved for in vitro recombinant DNA techniques.

genome
The full chromosome set containing all the genes of a particular individual.

genomics
The study of the structure and function of genomes. Genomics usually involves high speed sequencing of the DNA and computer searches for sequences that code for genes.

genotype
The sum total of the genetic information of an organism including the linkage relationships between genes. The genotype, modified by environment, determines the phenotype.

GMO
Genetically modified organism. An organism that has incorporated a functional foreign gene through recombinant DNA technology. The novel gene exists in all of its cells and is passed through to progeny. Same as transgenic.

hybridization, nucleic acid
Complementary strands of DNA or RNA will spontaneously match up with each other and bond together under the right conditions. This is called nucleic acid hybridization and is used when probing southern and northern blots.

integration event
See event.

Kb (kilobase)
The number of base pairs (in thousands) that denote the size of a nucleic acid fragment.

lane
On a gel or a blot, a lane belongs to one sample. It contains fragments of different sizes that were separated by gel electrophoresis. See band, blot.

library, DNA
A large set of clones of DNA fragments from a particular organism. DNA libraries are usually maintained in E. coli or in bacteriophages.

ligation
Joining two fragments of DNA end to end. See sticky ends.

linkage
Measures the physical distance between two genes. Genes that are close together are unlikely to segregate in a sexual cross. Distant genes segregate independently are are then said to be unlinked.

molecular markers
Genetic traits which are detectable on gels or blots and can be used to construct genetic maps. Molecular markers usually have no known function. RFLPs are molecular markers.

mutation
A spontaneous or induced genetic change in the DNA of an organism. Most mutations are undesirable, but a few are useful such as dwarfing genes in cereal crops that allow the plants to stand better.

nuclease
Any enzyme that cuts nucleic acids. See restriction enzyme.

nucleic acid
DNA or RNA

nucleotide
Building block of DNA or RNA. See base pair.

nucleus
A cellular organelle in plants and animals that contains the chromosomes which in turn are composed of DNA plus protein.

particle bombardment
Using metal particles to blast DNA into cells for the purpose of genetic engineering. A gene gun is used to propel the metal particles.

PCR
Polymerase chain reaction. An amazingly sensitive technique that allows the specific amplification of extremely small amounts of particular DNA fragments using DNA polymerase and specific primers.

phenotype
The observable characters of an organism due to genetic and environmental effects on development. See genotype.

plasmid
A small circular piece of DNA in bacteria that resembles the bacterial circular chromosome, but is dispensable. Some bacterial strains contain many plasmids and some contain none. Plasmids are often used in genetic engineering as cloning vectors.

polymerase
Any enzyme that adds subunits to chains of macromolecules. Example is DNA polymerase.

primer
A small segment of DNA which binds to a complementary strand of DNA. Primers are necessary to start the DNA polymerase enzyme and therefore are necessary in PCR.

probe
A fragment of DNA, usually labeled with radioactive 32P, that detects homologous sequences on southern blots.

promoter
A segment of DNA near the beginning of a gene that controls if and when the gene is actually expressed. Promoters can be specific for certain tissues such as roots, seeds, etc.

protein
Molecules composed of amino acids. Proteins constitute the enzymes and many of the structural components of cells.

protease
An enzyme that cleaves proteins.

proteomics
The study of the structure and function of proteins.

purine and pyrimidine
See base pair.

recombinant
Def. 1. In classical genetics, an organism containing a combination of alleles different from either parentDef. 2. In molecular genetics, a DNA molecule containing a novel sequence. See rDNA.

restriction enzyme
A class of enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences called restriction sites. Restriction enzymes were key to making genetic engineering possible. See RFLP.

RFLP
Restriction fragment length polymorphism. RFLPs are generated by digesting DNA with restriction enzymes. The DNA is separated by size by gel electrophoresis. Slight differences in homologous fragments may exist between individuals. These length polymorphisms are RFLPs. See blot.

ribosome
Cellular organelle that performs protein synthesis.

RNA
Ribonucleic acid. The three basic types are messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

Roundup Ready
A trademark for plants that are genetically engineered to be resistant to the herbicide Roundup (technical name: glyphosate).

sequence
Noun: the particular order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA fragment. Verb: to determine the particular order of nucleotides in a strand of DNA.

sticky ends
After cutting with restriction enzymes, the ends of DNA fragments are "sticky". They can easily be joined with other fragments that were cut with the same enzyme and so have complementary sticky ends.

transcription
The copying of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA).

transformation
The process of incorporating foreign DNA into an organism.

transgene
A foreign gene incorporated by transformation.

transgenic
An organism that has incorporated a functional foreign gene through recombinant DNA technology. The novel gene exists in all of its cells and is passed through to progeny. Same as genetically modified organism (GMO).

translation
Protein synthesis. The conversion of information from mRNA into a protein

Biotechnology And Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology: An Overview

HUMAN BEINGS RELY ON THE EARTH'S bountiful Supply of life for a. wide variety of essential substances. We survive by consuming the edible portions of plants and animals, and our clothes and kooes are composed at least in part of biologically derived materials.'. Microorganisms are used to make bread, to convert milk into cheese:, and to brew alcoholic beverages. Common substances like vinegar? vitamins, and monosodium glutamate are manufactured using mic rofciial "factories." Antibiotics are extracted from various strains of moulds and bacteria.
Overr these course of time, human ingenuity has gradually worked on these organisms. People have selected plants, animals, and microoirganisms with the most useful characteristics from among those in the environment. They have bred individuals from same or closely related species to produce offspring with new, more desirable combinations of traits. Among the results of this genetic husbandry have been improved varieties of crops and livestock, industrial microbes that are hardier and more efficient, and novel Antibiotics.

During the past 15 years, researchers have begun to acquire a new and unprecedented degree of control over the genetic constitution of living things. The techniques of genetic engineering, and in particular recombinant DNA, have made it possible to manipulate genetic material on these smallest possible scale individual genes. The effect on molecular biology, immunology, and other scientific disciplines has been little short of revolutionary. Says Douglas Costle, former administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, "While it is probably true that physics was the science of the first half of the century, it is almost certain to be molecular biology in what remains of this century and well into the next." The development of genetic engineering has been a direct result of generous governmental funding for basic biomedical research since World War II, and it is this research that has benefited most immediately from the new techniques. "The impact of this technology has been enormous at the scientific level," says Philip Leder of Harvard Medical School. "Prior to 1973-74, when these experiments began, all that geneticists knew about the existence of genes they inferred from their properties-Recombinant DNA technology changed that in a stroke. In so doing, it altered genetics from a purely inferential science to, at least in part, an analytical, observational science."

In just a decade of work with recombinant DNA, researchers have industrialized nations. But because it directly affects such basic human concerns as food production, health care, and energy availability, it is likely to eventually have worldwide implications. As Leder says, "It is impossible for us to say with confidence that something reasonable cannot be done using this technology."
Any technology that deals so directly with the basic processes of life inevitably raises compelling questions. The early debates about the safety of recombinant DNA research have quieted, but new issues have taken their place. Will the release of genetically engineered organisms into the environment pose threats to human health or to natural ecosystems? How should the ability to alter the genetic makeup of human beings be managed? Is new legislation necessary to regulate
the products that are likely to be manufactured with genetic engineering. Should the U.S. government be encouraging the development of the American biotechnology industry in light of the considerable competition expected from biotechnology companies abroad.

These and other difficult questions are being asked with a special urgency. Biotechnology is growing so quickly, and its ultimate influence is so wide-ranging, that it is straining the capacity of public and private institutions to deal with it. "We are running out of time," explains Senator Albert Gore, Jr., "in the sense that the technology is developing so rapidly that we are going to have to make some tentative decisions without the base of understanding that a democracy requires for subtle and difficult decisions. Requests for field tests of genetically engineered organisms are already beginning to be made, as companies proceed with their research programs. The first authorized human gene therapy experiments are expected to be conducted later this year. Both of these facts underscore how important it is to develop a coherent set of scientific and ethical guidelines to help us evaluate the implications of this technology."

The Molecular and Microbial Products of Biotechnology

Most of the products being developed in biotechnology fall into one of two very broad categories: chemical substances that can be made using genetically engineered organisms, and genetically engineered organisms themselves. Included in the first category are the wide variety of compounds that have drawn the attention of pharmaceutical manufacturers. Genetically engineered microorganisms can be used to produce hormones like insulin and growth hormone, other biological response modifiers such as interferons and neuropeptides, blood products like clotting and antishock factors, vaccines against previously unpreventable diseases, new antibiotics, and many other kinds of biologically active molecules.

In addition, the availability of large quantities of these previously scarce molecules enables researchers to learn more about their function in the body, which will result in new therapeutic agents. The ability of genetically engineered microorganisms to produce valuable chemical compounds will also lead to applications in many other industries, including the food processing, chemicals, and energy industries. Among the numerous substances whose production could be
affected by biotechnology are alcohol, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, high-grade oils, adhesives, and dyes. Biotechnology will also make possible the synthesis of novel chemical compounds in these commercial sectors.
The use of biological processes in industry places special demands on manufacturing. Generally, biological conversions entail a fermentation process. Nutrients and raw materials are supplied to living cells in a reactor vessel; the cells convert the raw materials into products; and the products are withdrawn, separated, and purified. These bioconversions must be carefully monitored and controlled. Indeed, the development of economical fermentation equipment and methods is one of the greatest challenges facing biotechnology today. But not all genetically engineered microorganisms will be used in fermentation processes. Some are being designed for use in the environment. Many of these will have agricultural applications, but others might be used to degrade wastes or toxic substances, to leach or concentrate minerals from ores, or to increase the extraction of oil from wells.

An important subset of the molecular products of biotechnology are the proteins known as monoclonal antibodies. These are produced not through recombinant DNA techniques but through the fusion of a tumor cell with an antibody-producing white blood cell. The result is a
virtually immortal clone of cells producing antibodies that are chemically identical. Monoclonal antibodies have already found a wide range of uses in research, because of their remarkable ability to attach to specific molecular configurations. They are also being used in a number of in vitro diagnostic tests to detect the presence of disease or other conditions. At the same time, investigators are examining their possible uses within the body to expose diseased areas to scanning instruments, to confer passive immunity against disease, or to carry biologically active agents to diseased tissues.

Biotechnology in Agriculture

Many of the products being developed for use in human health care have agricultural analogs. New or cheaper drugs, vaccines, and diagnostics will all cut the toll of disease and lost productivity that continues to be a major concern in agriculture. Furthermore, genetically engineered microorganisms will be used to produce feed additives, growth enhancers, and other compounds that will boost agricultural yields.
But biotechnology has a fundamentally different capability in agriculture. It can potentially be used to change the genetic constitution of microorganisms, plants, and animals to make them more productive, more resistant to disease or environmental stress, or more nutritious. In doing so, biotechnology, like the green revolution before it, could have a dramatic effect on the problems of food production and hunger around the world. Probably the first application of this type will involve the genetic engineering of microorganisms. Researchers are working to produce
microorganisms that will supply plants or animals with essential nutrients, protect them from insects or disease, or provide them with compounds that influence their growth. A central concern of this work is the competitiveness of the genetically engineered microorganisms in
agricultural environments, since the microorganisms will generally have to survive and multiply to perform their functions.

The genetic engineering of plants and animals is a far more daunting technical task than the genetic engineering of microorganisms, but this is where the greatest potential benefits lie. Researchers have already succeeded in inserting functional genes into plant cells, in regenerating whole plants that express the gene, and in having the gene passed on to offspring. In this way, they hope to eventually be able to transfer into plants such traits as resistance to pesticides, tolerance to environmental conditions such as salinity or toxic metals, greater nutritive value or productivity, or perhaps even the ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. However, major technical barriers still prohibit the genetic engineering of most of the agriculturally important food crops. For instance, the majority of desirable agricultural traits are likely to arise from the interaction of many different genes, making it difficult to transfer these traits between plants. A major current limitation on research in this area is the paucity of basic biochemical knowledge about plants. To take one example, the genetic origins of almost all agriculturally useful traits are not yet known.

CAREER OUTLOOK AND SUBJECTS INVOLVED

What is the career outlook in biotechnology?
Biotech BOOM in 1998
1,300 companies in the US
2/3 have less than 135 employees
140,000 jobs
Jobs will continue to increase exponentially
Jobs are available to high school graduates through PhD’s

What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?

Multidisciplinary- involving a number of disciplines that are coordinated for a desired outcome
1. Science
2. Life sciences
3. Physical sciences
4. Social sciences
5. Mathematics
6. Applied sciences
7. Computer applications
8. Engineering
9. Agriculture

BIOTECHNOLOGY NOTES

What Is Biotechnology?

• Using scientific methods with organisms to produce new products or new forms of organisms.
  "Any technique that uses living organisms or substances from those organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses "
  
• GMO- genetically modified organisms.
  GEO- genetically enhanced organisms.
  With both, the natural genetic material of the organism has been altered.
  Roots in bread making, wine brewing, cheese and yogurt fermentation, and classical plant and animal breeding
• Manipulation of genes is called genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology
• Genetic engineering involves taking one or more genes from a location in one organism and either Transferring them to another organism OR Putting them back into the original organism in different combinations